Centauri Dreams

Imagining and Planning Interstellar Exploration

Woven Light: The Orphan Obscura

Heath Rezabek began exploring Vessel, an evolving strategy for preserving Earth’s cultures and biology, in these pages back in 2013. A librarian and writer in Austin TX, Heath went on to push these ideas into the realm of science fiction, in the form of a series of excerpts from a longer work that is still emerging. The concluding post in this sequence appears below, though you’ll be hearing more about ‘Woven Light.’ A novel is emerging from this haunting look at how, at various points in our future and with a wide range of technologies, we will interact with the artifacts and stored experience of our past. Heath’s helpful synopsis begins the post.

by Heath Rezabek

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For some time, I have had in hand the final chapter – for now – of the Woven Light speculative fiction series as published on Centauri Dreams from 2013 to present. At Paul’s invitation, I am prefacing the final installment with some notes on the series as a whole.

The series began as a way to explore ideas surrounding the prospects for human or posthuman space travel, and the role which might be played by very long term archives in the resilience of life’s efforts to endure. I am not finished with the themes explored in the series, but for now it is time to shelve this particular approach to the storyline, along with its characters.

After feedback last year at the Turkey City Writer’s Workshop in Austin Texas, and encouragement from a few other parties, I am pursuing a new approach to the story arc, from an entirely different time and place in its imaginary history. The goal is to produce a cohesive and more linear novel, exploring world(s) we’ve only glimpsed so far; the Centauri Dreams installments of Woven Light are a (somewhat fragmented and dreamlike) hint at what is to come.

Here follow episode summaries of each of the published episodes, with links to their versions here.

Vessel Haven (I). We are introduced to an entity called Tracer Aakanthia [9T33], who is exploring a holographic archival site. We meet Aben Ramer, encountering a mock-up of a Vessel Haven – a very long term archive – at the Burning Man festival, circa 2023.

Adamantine (II). ?We meet Mentor Kaasura, who is exploring a ruinous region, the site of an ancient disaster. He rests at a pilgrimage shelter. We learn about an artificial life project meant to provide a guiding sentience for a starship. The sentience is named Avatamsaka; the starship – a lightsail – is named Saudade. We also learn about two offshoots of humanity: the Avaai and the Ghemaai.

Augmented Dreamstate (III). ?We meet Aben’s mother, Thea, an author of speculative fiction, as she struggles with a draft of her work. We meet Dr. Jota Kaasura, who bears an unknown relation to Mentor Kaasura from the prior installment. Dr. Kaasura is working on a project called Augmented Dreamstate, which allows the immersive visualization, exploration, and recording of scenarios. He explores one such: the scene on the day of a disaster.

Proteaa (IV). ?We explore a spaceborne habitat derived from an idea of Freeman Dyson, which he’d referred to as an Ark Egg. Here they are called Precursorae, and within them dwell beings called Proteaa. Vannevar Bush’s Memex is considered, along with an exercise developed by Thea Ramer for coaxing concepts out of a flux of random ideas: Wildcards. Dr. Kaasura meets someone unexpected, and dreams of drifting habitats far from the Precursorae.

Lesson Arcs (V). ?Thea Ramer publishes her novel, The Tracer Guild, but life has other plans. Years later, Aben Ramer meets Dr. Kaasura, and lays the groundwork for him to meet with Thea. In another time and place, perhaps aboard our lightsails, we meet Vaarea Ramer, one of the Ghemaai, immersed in worldbuilding lessons that are passed from mind to mind.

Age of Release (VI). ?Mentor Kaasura explores deep passages woven of light, beyond the shelter’s door. Far flung from there, a fog of mind called Ancient Light sifts the space between stars, finding worlds where planetbound life had nearly reached the Age of Release. Aben Ramer determines researches in one of his favorite spots for thinking, and makes a new friend.

For those who would like a plain manuscript version, in sequential order, this PDF can be found here. It includes a short Appendix of previously unreleased developmental fragments from the drafting table].

I look forward to sharing future excerpts from the new effort with Centauri Dreams as well, should Paul welcome it.

Here, at last, is the final installment (for now!) of Woven Light: A special series for Centauri Dreams, 2013-2015.

Woven Light: The Orphan Obscura (VII)

Across town, mother wasn’t doing so well.

Sorting had led to spreads, as Thea rediscovered cards she’d scribbled on years ago, and laid them out the way she remembered, five across to find three akin. She’d pull them aside, and then would remember. How it had felt: To write with an explorer’s eyes, cresting a hill to shine the light of awareness on inevitable mountains.

Eyes closed, still she could see Ityl-Atys spread below her. Wings outspread, a raptor keen and bright of eye . . . She could see the bazaar, the outlying districts, the towers of abandon. Red streaks in distant sun spread golden rivulets, a quilt of sands for all below them.

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Image 1: Based on photograph CC BY Michal Huniewicz.

And below, she remembered, delved Vaachez, his dusted hat long since traded in fair exchange for a rough and partial map; his map now guidance through at least one dimension of battered space.

Thea read an untold chapter to herself. So easily, but traceless. No recorder. This time, no traces. She only wanted to know.

~ I only want to know. ~

Vaachez made his way along the higher moraine, beams and slabs settled well for this stratum, clearstone lending its glow to light his way.

His pack was both lighter and more burdensome now, its baubles and bits traded for rarified things needed further down, when stealth failed him. So far, trading had sufficed. But trading had grown more scarce since the post where Oaami, his guide, had bowed, and remained behind. “All I have left to offer, I have whispered to this map,” she had said; and handing it to him, she had turned to her ascent.

From there, he had endured the broken way with only scrapes and the parching isolation of stealth to test him.

In time, even the need for stealth had faded, as the last small settlements carven into these caverns had scattered, and subsided altogether. But the weight he carried now was of most use down here; his ascent would depend on encountering someone else descending, the only ones for whom such things would hold the value they held for him now.

He’d had no word of other tracers when he’d ducked into the shade of the lower bazaar. He couldn’t depend on them. So far as he knew, he was the only pathfinder still drawn to this old mystery.

He had to know. Ascent or an ending, he only wanted to know.

Vaachez worked his way slowly around the edge of a drop, a good ten stories, rusty cable scraping the leather of his gloves, smell of dust and sunbeams still (thank the moon) refined by his breather.

Around the bend; only a little further, if this map was anything at all.

Across the way, just then, he glimpsed it: a bird of some sort, winged its way across the chamber above this blockage. Setting sunlight from a shaft far above them caught its wingtips: a dash of burnished wings. A piercing cry. Alight and keen, now, on the opposite ledge.

A clambering clatter in the softlight, ancient ledgers falling still. Vaachez stood, staring straight at the watcher and pierced right through in return. He couldn’t make out the size of the bird, but its shape was nearly regal. So sharp and feral, whittled by chance and opportunity.

It shifted one leg; he did the same. Nothing gave. Exhaling, Vaachez turned to see the rumored landing not a dozen streetwidths on. From there, by map, the ruins descended in wide slabs and steps, far enough that by the time he reached the fabled site, dusk would have fallen far above. Already the air was quickly cooling.

Inhaling again: ~ All things struggle ~. Exhaling again: ~ On each other we depend. ~ Vaachez switched his grip upon the cable, and stepped ahead.

From its perch, the great raptor could see the dustling balance and edge onwards, surefooted and determined.

Hours later, now sharpened in the cool air from his slow descent of switchbacks, he rested. Vaachez stood again on solid slabwork, trying to adjust his eyes to blue shadows. On beams and slabs around him, he thought at one point he had glimpsed vegetation. How possible was that, so far down below? He climbed the final rise, a silent beachhead, and stood before . . .

At first he saw a mountain. Before his mind could calm his heart he felt it sink at the thought of another climb. But no: this was an illusion. Peak there was, quite clearly rising, all in dusky blue and — yes — clad in clambering green. Darkling down below, it rose and reared at the peak as a beam full of moonlight was filtered down to impossible pools at the base of the beamwork.

And beamwork it was: a steeple of sorts, tentpoled and rising, rooted in its subterranean oasis, foundations wide at the base. There, perhaps, it sat: the Orphan, Obscura. How could he know?

Seeing himself at a ledge, an impassable drop to the oasis below, he stopped, and sat, and stared.

By now his eyes had adjusted quite well to the indigo dark, and he could see and sense that the ruin was extensive, though not as massive as some above ground. But sheltered in this space, this domed duskland, it seemed as if a miniature of something vast. Truth enough was that he couldn’t tell. It couldn’t be as large as it seemed. The space was so quiet, the air so still, the sound of water trickling so clear in the silence it carved.

Inhaling again; exhaling again.

Behind him, a cry: and a winged shadow passed not so far above his shoulder, on his right. Friend from the ledge-crossing, it needed a name. And as it made its way across the gap to perch on rising angles, he decided its name was Zinn.

The distance was greater than he’d thought; the edifice was huge. It slumber was deep. Its voice . . .

He sat before the Orphan. He would speak with it, or nothing.

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Image 2: Based on photograph CC BY-SA Al Jazeera

Letting his focus go soft, he steadied his gaze and his breathing, until before him in the settled shape of the ruins he could see a seated figure, Grandfather Silence, casting long shadows. And as his gaze drifted, it fell like the dust, and settled on wellsprings deep at the base . . . And tilted his gaze as he found there a gap of a threshold. Uncertain, he still saw what seemed like — another. Seated at the entry, a tiny mountain settled down beneath the mountainous shadow. Who would break the stillness? Who would answer?

He broke the stillness. ~ I sit before you, a traveller and a friend. I have heard only whispers, but even rumors have a cause. ~

Only dust in deep night air, so slowly.

~ I am called Vaachez. I am an orphan like you. ~

And as Zinn watched, the figure sat with silence.

And the silence stretched on, and on.

~ He has come a long way, ~ croaked Zinn. ~ He has come to know your tale. ~

The Orphan Obscura stirred then, and murmured; ~ He knows it already. ~

Zinn shook and settled, a flutter and a silence like an avian shrug. ~ He may have forgotten. ~

~ Then he is not the one to discover it anew. ~

Zinn cocked one eye, and sized the dustling up and down. ~ He may be the last. Their house is fading. ~

~ He may be the first. Their house is a seedling. ~ The Orphan Obscura shifted something, from one place inside its expanse to another.

~ If he leaves without knowing, he leaves without purpose. ~

Obscura muttered. ~ If he leaves without knowing, he leaves too soon. ~

Perturbed by this back and forth, Zinn took wing, sailing up into the rafters, and swinging down towards the base, where Vaachez’ watery eyes were still fixed. And landing there, she found a pile.

~ What is this heap? ~ She picked at the leaves.

~ It sits and waits. ~ Obscura surveyed a shallow pool at its feet, located a treasure.

~ No time to wait! ~ A fluttering dance. ~ The sun is near! The moon is full! The sleepy stir and soon they’ll wake; for what, a pile? A heap of memories? ~ Zinn darted down to peck at something shiny.

~ A heap of time, slow and intact. That is no small thing. ~ Obscura turned a stone slowly in its gaze, and beneath the stars its etchings caught the ancient light. ~ I have done what I can. ~

Zinn circled the stack of remnants there, wondering if Vaachez could read at such a distance.

She decided he could, and took wing.

~ You’ve done what you can; and so have I. ~

Vaachez sat, parched and quite lonely. The bird had flown suddenly, surely, up and beyond the loose strata far above him. He was alone with his vigil.

Before him slumped a place where forgotten things slept, and waited for a stronger will than his to wake them. But Zinn had been right about one thing: his eyes were keen. And he could read, in that cairn of debris far below, a secret hint of kindness.
Vaachez mulled his reckonings.

All about him, far above him, intolerable weight bent, balanced over its remnants. The Orphan Obscura was not alone, and several more of its kind lay at rest, he knew, slumbering guardians at the roots of other citistates. But if they were all as drowsy as Obscura, there was no way the long work of the Tracer-Guild, and the pathfinders before them, and the dreamhunters before that, could ever come to fruition.

~ Sojourner, peace. You are not alone; nor am I. ~

Vaachez opened his eyes, not realizing they’d been closed, to see the color changed in this space from dusk to slow dawning. He leaned in, peering closely at the form at ruin’s threshold, before the climbing light in this chamber swamped his eyes. Already it was growing violet.

~ A thousand ruins does not a remembrance make. ~ Vaachez furrowed, scolded the fading night.

~ A thousand and one. It takes only one, unruined and found, to spark a rekindling.
~ Obscura raised its gaze, and still could see the moon. Something on its surface glinted, and it too was unalone.

Vaachez rose. Of course the citistate Orphans weren’t the only Orphans out there. Just the most encumbered.

He would find another. He would find a site intact. Would he have to leave the Tracer-Guild, or would they understand?

He looked down at the water, hoping it wasn’t a trick of the mind. He’d need to fill his skins before he made his ascent. Shifting his glance to his rope, he surveyed the situation. He had to get down there, and he had to get back up.

Now that he knew what the seated one sat with, he believed he could see a way. Weighing his chance in his hands, he took it.

The cavern was filled with sudden sun.

– – –

Thea awoke, late afternoon blazing low on mountaintops.

“Shit. You’re kidding me.”

Why no recorder? She was out of practice, and should have known she’d fall asleep. She turned to sit, fumbling for her pad. What was it? A greenish-blue tent in a forest; winter trees overhead; a nightingale?

“Stop and go back.” She clenched her eyes shut and hit record.

“There was a tent, and a full moon. Someone sat and watched and waited. A birdsong, down at the base of the tent… A pile of leaves? A pile of papers? Stones? A pile of something.”

Shit…

“But there was a glimmer in there, underneath or beside it… And I got the impression there are others. Other campsites I guess . . .”

Thea picked at a quilt thread.

“. . . In greener forests . . .”

Greener than green. “All those years, I was afraid of ending this thing.” She looked over at her bedside shelves, at her work, paperbacked.

“Work. I’ve got work to do. At least I should finish the report. Where’s Aben?” She went to send a message, then remembered her son was a grown man already.
Bluer than blue. “I lost it. I’ll try again tomorrow. This time I’ll record from the start. It’s never the same, but it should be related.”

She shut it off, and went to splash her face, and sat at the kitchen table to read back what she had so far.

~ So reluctant. ~

Thea Ramer looked at her life and she sighed.

~ Just sit with it. ~

The sunset lit the pictureframes, the plants and books, the shiny coat of little Dakini, the calico kitten up on her shelves. Golder than gold.

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Image 3: Based on photograph CC BY-SA Ryan Cadby

– – –

Notes on the Deployment of Survey Swarm 2B “Peripheral Vision”?(New York City, Friday September 1, 2023)

The second phase of our survey project utilized a reoptimized scanning algorithm which sought to double the scale and resolution of the initial test survey. My lab at Cornell had developed the algorithm based on analysis of the 2022 data which had suggested that the storage format could accommodate far greater density than we were requiring.

Project lead for the algorithm now known as Peripheral Vision was Ph.D. Candidate Kim Tran, under my supervision. I take full responsibility for what ultimately ensued.

Once site preparations had been completed, the fleet of 64 surveyors were arranged in their starting hexagonal configuration, facing inwards towards the calibration artifact, precisely as specified. The target artifact was a solid tungsten sphere, measuring 20cm in diameter.

The process as planned was for the swarm to self-arrange into a dome configuration around the calibration artifact, and then to commence scanning at n=1 resolution.

Once that scan had been completed, each surveyor was then to pair randomly with another of its peers, the two swapping position to rescan at the same resolution from the new position as an error check and redundant sample.

Finally, once all 32 pairs had completed this process, each would re-select a different random partner, swap positions, and reset their scanning matrices to twice the resolution of the prior pass.

They were then to widen their distance from each other — and thus the swarm’s distance from the artifact — by twice their prior distance, and the process was then to be repeated. The scanning was to cease after four iterations, with a failsafe killswitch coded to kick in after that point if anything in the process had impeded the scan.

– – –

Thea stared through her words, sunken in recollection of what had happened that day.

It could have been much worse. They had lost the swarm, and several technicians had been sent to the ER with concussive shock from the blast. Really, the blast could have been much worse. It all could have been much, much worse.

And then there was the dataset. She turned from her words to stare instead through the dataset.

Aleph. The Myriad Arcana.

When initiated, it had seemed as if the swarm had failed from the start. They failed to reposition at greater distance after the first scan, or the next. Focal beams of bluelight saturated the chamber, tracing and retracing the sample sphere. One sweep; two sweeps; four; then more. Still they hovered, frantically scanning the sphere.

Because sampling had continued to double, even though the surveyors were not repositioning at all, the failsafe code was not engaged. Or perhaps that code knew something its technicians didn’t: it was only when the manual killswitch had been kicked that the surveyors blew to shrapnel, taking out half the observation deck’s retaining wall.

Thea and her team had driven the evacuation, and so she could see light of day beyond the lockdown door when the swarm blew. Flat she laid on pavement, primal fear rekindled to a flaring all around her.

But because the doubling data had shed itself instantly abroad, syncing and resyncing in distributed backups as planned, they still had the bulk of its tattered core. For better or worse it had been unquarantined, because of course they’d immediately want to vouchsafe the data as it streamed from the site… No-one had asked about this yet in the investigation; still it kept her sleepless.

The dataset was so dense that it had already been dubbed a data core by some of her students, and they had only just begun to sample its surface. It had swamped and choked their servers as it had formed, and then their distributed syncs and backups. But now it sat, inert and crystalline, arrayed as woven light; and it could be viewed. Visualized and contemplated, spinning like an ashen star in problem space.

Because it was so large, it had been a lucky break that the syncs had been distributed from the start, or they would never have been able to glimpse it as a whole at all. Yet now, each time they did, each time they sampled a slice and arrayed it with others, they found both gaps and gifts which shouldn’t have been there.

Elements too nearly related for their sampling process to be verified as random.

Samples whose content seemed nothing to do with tungsten.

Avatamsaka had been unborn.

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An Asteroid Deflection Investigation

Yesterday’s post on what we’re learning about Rosetta’s comet (67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko) briefly touched on the issue of changing the orbit of such bodies for use in resource extraction. Moving the comet Grigg-Skjellerup is part of the plot of Neal Stephenson’s novel Seveneves, where the idea is to support a growing human population in space with the comet’s huge reserves of water. Just how hard it would be to move a comet is made clear by how a proposed near-term mission approaches the question of deflecting a small asteroid.

The mission, discussed at the ongoing European Planetary Science Congress in Nantes, is called AIDA, for Asteroid Impact and Deflection Assessment. A joint mission being developed by the European Space Agency and NASA, AIDA is actually a two-pronged affair. ESA is leading the Asteroid Impact Mission (AIM), while NASA is behind the Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART). The plan is to rendezvous with the asteroid (65803) Didymos and its tiny satellite (known informally as ‘Didymoon’) for scientific study and a deflection test.

Think about this comparison: Comet Grigg-Skjellerup (studied by the Giotto probe in 1992, though from a considerable distance) is approximately 2.6 kilometers in diameter. Didymos is about 750 meters in diameter, and the Didymoon about 160 meters across. It’s the Didymoon that ESA and NASA plan on deflecting, driving the DART spacecraft into it as AIM observes and analyzes the plume of ejected material. With AIM remaining on the job, further mapping and monitoring will study the impact area and reveal any changes in Didymoon’s orbit.

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Image: Arrival of AIM at Didymos and Didymoon. Credit: ESA.

Thus the spread between a near-future science fiction story (the acquisition of Grigg-Skjellerup for resources in Seveneves) and present-day technology — we can assume that Stephenson’s comet-catcher has some powerful propulsive assets compared to what we can deploy today. But the novel explains all this on its own terms and I’ll say no more about it. As to AIDA, the words of Patrick Michel give us the gist. Michel is lead on the AIM Investigation team:

“To protect Earth from potentially hazardous impacts, we need to understand asteroids much better – what they are made of, their structure, origins and how they respond to collisions. AIDA will be the first mission to study an asteroid binary system, as well as the first to test whether we can deflect an asteroid through an impact with a spacecraft. The European part of the mission, AIM, will study the structure of Didymoon and the orbit and rotation of the binary system, providing clues to its origin and evolution. Asteroids represent different stages in the rocky road to planetary formation, so offer fascinating snapshots into the Solar System’s history.”

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Image: Impact on Didymoon, as observed by AIM and its deployed CubeSats. Credit: ESA.

AIM would launch in October of 2020, with rendezvous at (65803) Didymos in May of 2022. Didymos rotates rapidly, about once every 2.26 hours, and is considered the most accessible asteroid of its size from Earth. Didymoon orbits Didymos every 11.9 hours at an altitude of 1.1 kilometers — the name Didymos (Greek for ‘twin’) was chosen by astronomer Joe Montani, who discovered the objects, when light-curve analysis revealed the binary nature of the asteroid. While Didymos is thought to be a ‘chondrite’ (stony) asteroid, we know nothing about the mass and density of Didymoon, a lack that AIM and DART would be able to correct in short order.

The AIM mission has echoes of Rosetta, for like the latter, it carries a lander. MASCOT-2, built by the German aeronautics and space research center (DLR) will probe the internal structure of Didymoon, emitting low-frequency radar waves that will pass through the object, allowing AIM to chart the deep structure of the asteroid even as it measures Didymoon’s density and maps the surface at visible and infrared wavelengths. DART’s impact with Didymoon is scheduled for October of 2022. I also notice that AIM is scheduled to deploy three CubeSats to assist with impact observations and to test communication links between satellites in deep space.

DART itself is a 300 kg impactor that is designed to carry no scientific payload other than a 20-cm aperture CCD camera to support guidance during the impact approach phase. Launch is currently proposed for July of 2021. The impact at 6.25 kilometers per second is expected to produce a velocity change in the range of 0.4 mm/s, which should change the relative orbit of Didymos and Didymoon but create only a slight change in the binary’s heliocentric orbit.

Related: NASA has funded a concept design study and analysis for a mission called Psyche, which would investigate the interesting asteroid of the same name. Psyche is thought to be the survivor of a collision with another object that stripped off the outer layers of a protoplanet. About 200 kilometers in diameter, it is thought to be the most massive M-type asteroid, with a surface that is 90 percent iron. The Psyche mission, led by Linda Elkins-Tanton (Arizona State) would be an orbiter that would launch in 2020 and arrive in 2026.

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Off on a Comet

Imagine what you could do with a comet at your disposal. In Seveneves, Neal Stephenson’s new novel (William Morrow, 2015), a Musk-like character named Sean Probst decides to go after Comet Grigg-Skjellerup. A lunar catastrophe has doomed planet Earth and humanity is in a frantic rush to figure out how to save at least a fraction of the population by living off-world. Probst understands that a comet would be a priceless acquisition:

“You can’t make rocket fuel out of nickel. But with water we can make hydrogen peroxide — a fine thruster propellant — or we can split it into hydrogen and oxygen to run big engines…. We have to act immediately on long-lead-time work that addresses what we do know. And what we know is that we need to bring water to the Cloud Ark. Physics and politics conspire to make it difficult to bring it up from the ground. Fortunately, I own an asteroid mining company…”

And so on. Lest you think that was a spoiler, be advised that it’s just the tip of a story of Stephensonian complexity. In the world of the novel, even with virtually all the world’s resources committed to putting people and things into space, time is short, and moving a cometary mass will take years. Given today’s technology, we couldn’t move Grigg-Skjellerup the way Probst intends, but I kept thinking about comets and their resources as I pondered the latest news from a comet we’re getting to know very well thanks to Rosetta: 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko.

Traveling with a Comet

Rosetta reached Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in August of last year, so we’ve had a year of up-close study, with perihelion of the object’s 6.5 year orbit occurring on August 13 of this year. Watching a comet in action as it reaches perihelion and then recedes from the Sun is what the mission was designed for, and we’re learning that it was money well spent. As the European Space Agency recently reported, we now see a water ice cycle at work on the comet.

The work, which appears in Nature, draws on Rosetta’s Visible, InfraRed and Thermal Imaging Spectrometer (VIRTIS). Lead author Maria Cristina De Sanctis (INAF-IAPS, Rome) explains:

“We found a mechanism that replenishes the surface of the comet with fresh ice at every rotation: this keeps the comet ‘alive’… We saw the tell-tale signature of water ice in the spectra of the study region but only when certain portions were cast in shadow. Conversely, when the Sun was shining on these regions, the ice was gone. This indicates a cyclical behaviour of water ice during each comet rotation.”

The data come from September of 2014, focusing on a single square kilometer region on the comet’s ‘neck,’ an area that at the time was one of the comet’s most active. Rotating roughly every twelve hours, the studied block on 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko moved into and out of sunlight. The researchers believe that water ice on the surface and just below it sublimates when illuminated by the Sun, the gases flowing away from the comet into space. As the region again darkens, the surface cools, and subsurface water ice that briefly continues sublimating freezes out again as the vapor reaches the surface. A new layer of ice is formed, only to sublimate as the cycle starts again when the Sun illuminates that part of the surface.

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Image: Maps of water ice abundance (left) and surface temperature (right) focusing on the Hapi ‘neck’ region of Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. By comparing the two series of maps, the scientists have found that, especially on the left side of each frame, water ice is more abundant on colder patches (white areas in the water ice abundance maps, corresponding to darker areas in the surface temperature maps), while it is less abundant or absent on warmer patches (dark blue areas in the water ice abundance maps, corresponding to brighter areas in the surface temperature maps). In addition, water ice was only detected on patches of the surface when they were cast in shadow. This indicates a cyclical behaviour of water ice during each comet rotation. Credit/Copyright: ESA/Rosetta/VIRTIS/INAF-IAPS/OBS DE PARIS-LESIA/DLR; M.C. De Sanctis et al. (2015).

So we now have observational proof of the suspected water ice cycle on a cometary surface. The patch of the comet under study accounted for about three percent of the total amount of water vapor being emitted by the whole comet at the same time. Cometary activity, as you would expect, increased as 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko neared perihelion, producing abundant data from VIRTIS that will offer a further look as the object’s surface changes.

Further work appearing in Nature (and like the previous paper, discussed at the ongoing European Planetary Science Congress in Nantes, France) gives us a good reading on how the comet wound up with its unusual shape. The culprit: A low-speed collision between two separately formed comets. Lead author Matteo Massironi (University of Padova, Italy), an associate scientist of the OSIRIS team, used a 3D model to determine the slopes of over 100 terraced features seen on the comet’s surface, visualizing how they extended into the subsurface. The features were found to be coherently oriented around the comet’s lobes.

“It is clear from the images that both lobes have an outer envelope of material organised in distinct layers, and we think these extend for several hundred metres below the surface. You can imagine the layering a bit like an onion, except in this case we are considering two separate onions of differing size that have grown independently before fusing together.”

The ordered strata uncovered by Massironi and team show that a low-speed collision was the only way for the objects to merge while preserving the ordered strata found deep in the comet. So we can call 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko a ‘contact binary,’ one with a history that explains how it got its distinctive shape, which many people liken to a ‘rubber duck.’ Variations in the surface today are likely caused by different rates of sublimation. The frozen gases embedded within individual cometary layers are not necessarily distributed evenly throughout the comet.

ESA_Rosetta_OSIRIS_67P_CometLayers_Methods

Image (click to enlarge): Left: high-resolution OSIRIS images were used to visually identify over 100 terraces (green) or strata – parallel layers of material (red dashed lines) – in exposed cliff walls and pits all over the comet surface (top: Hathor and surrounding regions on comet’s small lobe; bottom: Seth region on comet’s large lobe). Middle: a 3D shape model was used to determine the directions in which the terraces/strata are sloping and to visualise how they extend into the subsurface. The strata ‘planes’ are shown superimposed on the shape model (left panel) and alone (right panel) and show the planes coherently oriented all around the comet, in two separate bounding envelopes (scale bar indicates angular deviation between plane and local gravity vector). Right: local gravity vectors visualised on the comet shape model perpendicular to the terrace/strata planes further realise the independent nature of the two lobes. Credit: ESA/Rosetta/MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/SSO/INTA/UPM/DASP/IDA; M. Massironi et al. (2015)

Will we one day use comets the way Neal Stephenson’s character describes in Seveneves? Supporting a human presence in deep space will involve ‘living off the land’ and utilizing resources like these. We’ll doubtless one day look back on the pioneering work of the Rosetta team and remember how much Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko had to teach us.

The paper on the water/ice cycle is De Sanctis et al., “The diurnal cycle of water ice on comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko,” Nature 525 (24 September 2015), 500-503 (abstract). The paper on the comet’s shape is Massironi et al., “Two independent and primitive envelopes of the bilobate nucleus of comet 67P,” Nature, published online 28 September 2015 (abstract).

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On Habitability around Red Dwarf Stars

Learning that there is flowing water on Mars encourages the belief that human missions there will have useful resources, perhaps in the form of underground aquifers that can be drawn upon not just as a survival essential but also to produce interplanetary necessities like rocket fuel. What yesterday’s NASA announcement cannot tell us, of course, is whether there is life on Mars today, though if the detected water is indeed flowing up from beneath the surface, it seems a plausible conjecture that some form of bacterial life may exist below ground, a life perhaps dating back billions of years.

I’ve speculated in these pages that we may in fact identify life around other stars — through studies of exoplanet atmospheres — before we find it elsewhere in our Solar System, given the length of time we have to wait before return missions to places like Enceladus and Europa can be mounted. Perhaps the Mars news can help us accelerate that schedule, at least where the Red Planet is concerned.

Meanwhile, we continue to construct models of habitability not just for Martian organisms, but for more advanced creatures on planets around other suns. As witness today’s topic, recent work out of the University of Washington that is showing us that what seemed to be a major problem for life on planets around red dwarfs may in some cases actually be a blessing.

Of Tides and Magnetic Fields

Our understanding about planets around red dwarf stars is that potentially habitable worlds are close enough to their star to be tidally locked, with one side always facing the star. We’re seeing interesting depictions of such worlds in recent science fiction, such as Stephen Baxter’s Proxima (Roc, 2014), where a habitable planet around Proxima Centauri undergoes ‘winters’ due not to axial tilt but varying levels of activity on the star itself. But tidal locking is problematic, as is the process of getting into it. Circularizing an orbit creates tidally generated heat that can affect surface conditions as well as any magnetic field.

Will planets like these have magnetic fields in the first place?According to Rory Barnes (University of Washington), the general belief among astronomers is that they’re unlikely, a conclusion the new work rejects. It’s an important issue because magnetic fields are believed to protect planetary atmospheres from the charged particles of the stellar wind, thus preventing them from being dissipated into space. Such fields can also protect surface life from dangerous radiation, as from flare-spitting M-dwarfs.

eso1328a-

Image: An artist’s impression of the Gliese 667 system from one of the super-Earths that orbit Gliese 667C. Image credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser.

The new paper from Barnes and former UW postdoc Peter Driscoll (now at the Carnegie Institution for Science) takes a look at magnetic fields on planets around red dwarfs. Driscoll began with an examination of tidal effects. In our Solar System, think of Io, its surface punctuated by volcanic activity, to see tidal heating in action. Says Driscoll: “The question I wanted to ask is, around these small stars, where people are going to look for planets, are these planets going to be roasted by gravitational tides?”

And what would be the effect of tidal heating on magnetic fields over the aeons? To find out, Driscoll and Barnes used simulations of planets around stars ranging from 0.1 to 0.6 of a solar mass. Their finding is that tidal heating can help by making a planetary mantle more able to dissipate interior heat, a process that cools the core and thus helps in the creation of a magnetic field.

Thus we have a way to protect the surface of a red dwarf’s planet in an environment that can show a good deal of flare activity in the early part of the star’s lifespan. “I was excited to see that tidal heating can actually save a planet in the sense that it allows cooling of the core,” says Barnes. “That’s the dominant way to form magnetic fields.” A planet in the habitable zone of a red dwarf in its early flare phase may have just the protection it needs to allow life.

But note the mass threshold described in the paper:

…tides are more influential around low mass stars. For example, planets around 0.2 Msun stars with eccentricity of 0.4 experience a tidal runaway greenhouse for 1 Gyr and would be tidally dominated for 10 Gyr. These time scales would increase if the orbits were fixed, for example by perturbations by a secondary planetary companion. We find a threshold at a stellar mass of 0.45Msun, above which the habitable zone is not tidally dominated. These stars would be favorable targets in the search for geologically habitable Earth-like planets as they are not overwhelmed by strong tides.

With stellar mass as the key, as explored in the paper over a range of masses and orbital eccentricities, various outcomes emerge. Planets with low initial eccentricity experience only weak tides, while planets on highly eccentric orbits experience much stronger effects – high initial eccentricity and tight orbits around low mass stars produce extreme tides that help to circularize planetary orbits. As the mass of the star increases, the habitable zone moves to larger orbital distances and tidal dissipation decreases.

Given all these scenarios, helpful magnetic fields are only one possible outcome, and even when they form, they may not be sufficient to protect life. The Driscoll/Barnes model includes planetary cores that undergo super-cooling, thus solidifying and killing the magnetic dynamo. Also, hotter mantle temperatures and lower core cooling rates can weaken the magnetic field below the point at which it can protect the planet’s surface.

Other possibilities: Planets orbiting close to their star in highly eccentric orbits will experience enough tidal heating to produce a molten surface. Tidal heating can also produce high rates of volcanic eruption, producing a toxic environment for life (the atmospheres of such planets may well be detectable with future generations of space- and ground-based telescopes). Tidal heating effects are most extreme for planets in the habitable zone around very small stars, those less than half the mass of the Sun.

So we don’t exactly have a panacea that makes all red dwarf star planets in the habitable zone likely to support life. What we do have is a model showing that for worlds orbiting a star of above 0.45 solar masses, the tidal effects do not overwhelm the possibilities for surface life while they do allow the formation of a protective magnetic field. Some of the magnetic fields generated last for the lifetime of the planets.

Needed improvements in the model, the paper suggests, include factors like variable internal composition and dissipation in oceans or internal liquid layers. “With growing interest in the habitability of Earth-like exoplanets, the development of geophysical evolution models will be necessary to predict whether these planets have all the components that are conducive to life.”

The paper is Driscoll and Barnes, “Tidal Heating of Earth-like Exoplanets around M Stars: Thermal, Magnetic, and Orbital Evolutions,” Astrobiology Vol. 15, Issue 9 (22 September 2015). Abstract / preprint.

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Pluto, Bonestell and Richard Powers

Like the Voyagers and Cassini before it, New Horizons is a gift that keeps on giving. As I looked at the latest Pluto images, I was drawn back to Chesley Bonestell’s depiction of Pluto, a jagged landscape under a dusting of frozen-out atmosphere. Bonestell’s images in The Conquest of Space (Viking, 1949) took the post-World War II generation to places that were only dimly seen in the telescopes of the day, Pluto being the tiniest and most featureless of all.

But paging through my copy of the book, I’m struck by how, in the case of Pluto, even Bonestell’s imagination failed to do it justice. The sense of surprise that accompanies many of the incoming New Horizons images reminds me of Voyager’s hurried flyby of Neptune and the ‘canteloupe’ terrain it uncovered on Triton back in 1989. On Pluto, as it turns out, we have ‘snakeskin’ terrain, just as unexpected, and likewise in need of a sound explanation.

fig1

Image: In this extended color image of Pluto taken by NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft, rounded and bizarrely textured mountains, informally named the Tartarus Dorsa, rise up along Pluto’s day-night terminator and show intricate but puzzling patterns of blue-gray ridges and reddish material in between. This view, roughly 530 kilometers across, combines blue, red and infrared images taken by the Ralph/Multispectral Visual Imaging Camera (MVIC) on July 14, 2015, and resolves details and colors on scales as small as 1.3 kilometers. Credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute.

Taken near the terminator, the image teases out a pattern of linear ridges. What exactly causes a striated surface like this on a world so far from the Sun? I fully understand William McKinnon’s almost startled reaction to the image. McKinnon (Washington University, St. Louis) is a New Horizons Geology, Geophysics and Imaging (GGI) team deputy lead:

“It’s a unique and perplexing landscape stretching over hundreds of miles. It looks more like tree bark or dragon scales than geology. This’ll really take time to figure out; maybe it’s some combination of internal tectonic forces and ice sublimation driven by Pluto’s faint sunlight.”

The Pluto image below has an abstract quality that combines with our awareness of its location to create an almost surreal response. I’m reminded more than anything else of some of Richard Powers’ science fiction covers — Powers was influenced by the surrealists (especially Yves Tanguy) and developed an aesthetic that captured the essence of the hardcovers and paperbacks he illustrated. This starkly set view of mountains of ice amidst smooth plains could be a detail in a Powers cover for Ballantine, for whom he worked in the 1950s and 60s.

fig2

Image: High-resolution images of Pluto taken by NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft just before closest approach on July 14, 2015, are the sharpest images to date of Pluto’s varied terrain – revealing details down to scales of 270 meters. In this 120-kilometer section taken from the larger, high-resolution mosaic, the textured surface of the plain surrounds two isolated ice mountains. Credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute.

Just for fun, here’s a Powers piece to make the point. ‘The Shape Changer’ was painted in 1973 for a novel by Keith Laumer.

ShapeChanger_525

But back to Pluto itself. Below we have a high resolution image showing dune-like features and what this JHU/APL news release describes as “the older shoreline of a shrinking glacial ice lake, and fractured, angular, jammed-together water ice mountains with sheer cliffs.”

fig3

Image: High-resolution images of Pluto taken by NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft just before closest approach on July 14, 2015, reveal features as small as 250 meters across, from craters to faulted mountain blocks, to the textured surface of the vast basin informally called Sputnik Planum. Enhanced color has been added from the global color image. This image is about 530 kilometers across. Credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute.

The wide-angle Ralph Multispectral Visual Imaging Camera (MVIC) gives us a view of Pluto’s colors in the image below, as John Spencer (GGI deputy lead, SwRI) explains:

“We used MVIC’s infrared channel to extend our spectral view of Pluto. Pluto’s surface colors were enhanced in this view to reveal subtle details in a rainbow of pale blues, yellows, oranges, and deep reds. Many landforms have their own distinct colors, telling a wonderfully complex geological and climatological story that we have only just begun to decode.”

fig4

Image: NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft captured this high-resolution enhanced color view of Pluto on July 14, 2015. The image combines blue, red and infrared images taken by the Ralph/Multispectral Visual Imaging Camera (MVIC). The image resolves details and colors on scales as small as 1.3 kilometers. Credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute.

Finally, we trace the distribution of methane across Pluto’s surface, seeing higher concentrations on the bright plains and crater rims, much less in darker regions.

“It’s like the classic chicken-or-egg problem,” said Will Grundy, New Horizons surface composition team lead from Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona. “We’re unsure why this is so, but the cool thing is that New Horizons has the ability to make exquisite compositional maps across the surface of Pluto, and that’ll be crucial to resolving how enigmatic Pluto works.”

fig5

Image: The Ralph/LEISA infrared spectrometer on NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft mapped compositions across Pluto’s surface as it flew past the planet on July 14, 2015. On the left, a map of methane ice abundance shows striking regional differences, with stronger methane absorption indicated by the brighter purple colors, and lower abundances shown in black. Data have only been received so far for the left half of Pluto’s disk. At right, the methane map is merged with higher-resolution images from the spacecraft’s Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI). Credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute.

In a chapter of The Conquest of Space called “The Solar Family,” Chesley Bonestell described what was then known about the nine planets of the Solar System, taking readers through the search for the ‘Trans-Neptune,’ the world we would learn to call Pluto. Everything about the Trans-Neptune turned out to defy expectations, he explains, noting that most astronomers of the time assumed it would be of about Neptune’s size, of low density and in an orbit far beyond Neptune’s. He writes:

Since everything turned out to be different from expectations, it is not surprising that a few of the old guard which did the theorizing tend to feel that Pluto is not the ninth planet they had been looking for, but an unexpected and unsuspected extra member of the solar family. The real ‘Trans-Neptune’ might still be undiscovered.

Even then, Pluto’s status as a planet seems to have been ambiguous, and today we hear speculations about another world in a far more distant orbit that could influence the trajectories of outer system objects like Sedna. In every way, it seems, Pluto has stirred the imagination while confounding our theories. The continuing dataflow from New Horizons deepens that tradition, and perhaps also contains the clues we’ll need to resolve Pluto’s mysteries.

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Seeing Alien Power Beaming

We’ve long discussed intercepting not only beacons but stray radio traffic from other civilizations. The latter may be an all but impossible catch for our technology, but there is a third possibility: Perhaps we can intercept the ‘leakage’ from a beamed power infrastructure used to accelerate another civilization’s spacecraft. The idea has been recently quantified in the literature, and Jim Benford examines it here in light of a power-beaming infrastructure he has studied in detail on the interplanetary level. The CEO of Microwave Sciences, Benford is a frequent contributor to these pages and an always welcome voice on issues of SETI and its controversial cousin METI (Messaging to Extraterrestrial Intelligence).

by James Benford

Jim-Benford

Beaming of power to accelerate sails for a variety of missions has been a frequent topic on this site. It has long been pointed out that beaming of power for interplanetary commerce has many advantages. Beaming power for space transportation purposes can involve earth-to-space, space-to-earth, and space-to-space transfers using high-power microwave beams, millimeter-wave beams or lasers. The power levels are high and transient and could easily dwarf any of our previous leakage to space.

We should be mindful of the possibilities of increased leakage from Earth in the future, if we build large power beaming systems. It has been previously noted that such leakage from other civilizations might be an observable [1].

Now workers at Harvard have quantified the leakage from beaming for space propulsion, its observables and some implications for SETI. The paper is “SETI via Leakage From Light Sails in Exoplanetary Systems,” by James Guillochon and Abraham Loeb (http://arxiv.org/abs/1508.03043). Theirs is the first work to show quantitatively that beam-powered sailship leakage is an observable for SETI.

Studies have shown that leakage of TV and radio broadcast signals such as TV are essentially undetectable from one star to another. But the driving of sails by powerful beams of radiation is far more focused than isotropic communication signals, and of course far more powerful. Therefore they could be far more easily detected. These are not SETI signals so much as an easily detected aspect of advanced civilizations.

Fast track to Mars

The mission Guillochon and Loeb study is one that previous workers have quantified: interplanetary supply missions using unmanned spacecraft. The ship is a sail with payload, a sailship, propelled via microwave beam from Earth to Mars. Previous work was described here and in New Scientist (see New Sail Design to Reach 60 Kilometers Per Second in Centauri Dreams and “Solar super-sail could reach Mars in a month,” in New Scientist (29 January 2005).

The Mars mission is shown in figure 1: a beam-driven sailship transits from Earth to Mars. An interstellar observer sees the beam accelerating the sail because the beam overlaps the sail to some extent at all distances.

Fig 1 Benford

Figure 1. Schematic of Mars cargo mission via microwave beaming, not to scale. The path of the sailship is the dashed arrow. The inset is the beam profile shown in green overlaying the sail of diameter Ds. The beam always overlaps the sail to some extent.

The beam is accelerated from near Earth and is decelerated by a similar system near Mars. Parameters for the mission are based on my papers on Cost-Optimized SETI Beacons and Sailships [2,3]: 1-ton sailship accelerated to 100 km/sec, beam power 1.5 TW, power duration 3 hours, beam frequency 68 GHz, acceleration 1 gee, transmitter aperture 1.5 km, sail diameter 300 m, sail surface density 4 10-5 kg/m2. (For background, see A Path Forward for Beamed Sails and Detecting a ‘Funeral Pyre’ Beacon).

The calculation in the paper presumes the two planets are in conjunction for the voyage, the distance between the planets at this point is 0.5 AU, and the path, although shown bending in Fig. 1, is in fact almost a straight line between the two planets. Figure 2 shows the trajectory. This yields a 9 day transit time when traveling at 100km/s. Figure 3 shows the launch and arrival trajectories of the sailship.

Fig. 2 Benford

Figure 2. Sail flight from Earth (blue orbit at 12 o’clock) to Mars(red orbit).

Fig. 3 Benford

Figure 3. Top (bottom) panel shows sailship’s launch (arrival). Black curve shows sailship (gray segments, not to scale) leaving Earth (Mars), represented by the blue (red) curve. Blue (red) points represent Earth’s (Mars’) position at evenly spaced intervals. Green lines originating from the planets show beam direction.

The beam always overlaps the sail; that overlap will increase as the sail passes the limit for beam focusing with the given transmitter aperture. Beyond that distance the beam spot swells and the leakage rises as the sailship flies away, until the beam is turned off.

How to See Power Beams

At 100 parsecs (326 light years), beam intensity is estimated to be of order 1 Jansky, which is about 100 times the typical detectability of SETI radio searches. The sweeping action of the beam in Figure 2 has implications for observers. The receiving radio telescope will typically see a rising signal because the beam is beginning to sweep past, then a drop in signal as the sail’s shadow falls on the receiver, then a rise as the beam reappears, followed by a decline. In other words, the time varying history of intensity is a symmetric transient with two peaks with much less (or even nothing) in between. They estimate the timescale for the transit to be of order 10 seconds.

The transmitting and receiving systems will be used pretty constantly because they cost a lot to build, but launch expenses are low — basically the cost of the electrical energy. Because it is doing a transit from one planet to another, this gives an opportunity for us to use our growing knowledge of exoplanets in a clever way.

Because the rapidly accumulating information on exoplanets frequently produces all 6 elements needed to describe the orbits of the transiting planets, one can predict times when we will be in the line of sight of two planets which could be beaming power between each other to drive sailships. This ‘conjunction’ is a matter of our perspective; the two planets are not near each other, merely along our line of sight.

The Guillochon-Loeb paper quantifies this strategy for detecting such leakage transients. They estimate that if we monitor continuously, the probability of detection would be on the order of 1% per conjunction event. They state that “for a five-year survey with ~10 conjunctions per system, about 10 multiply-transiting, inhabited systems would need to be tracked to guarantee a detection” with our existing radio telescopes. Of course the key question is just which planets are inhabited, and that’s what SETI is trying to find out. The leakage would be evidence for that, so this statement is a bit circular.

The recently-announced Breakthrough Listen Initiative will have 25% of the observing time allocated on the Parkes and Green Bank telescopes, so could initiate such a search.

Consequences

This first-of-its-kind calculation shows that the forthcoming Breakthrough Listen Initiative has a new observable to look for. With enough observing time, the prospects for SETI seem to now be improved. If alien civilizations are using power beaming, as we ourselves will likely do in future centuries, we may observe the leakage of these more advanced societies.

Although not mentioned in the paper, there are two implications:

ETI, having done the same thinking, would realize that they could be observed. They could put a message on the power beam and broadcast it for our receipt at no additional energy or cost. So by observing leakage from power beams we may well find a message embedded on the beam. That message may use optimized power-efficient designs such as spread spectrum and energy minimization [4-5]. That would be more sophisticated than the simple 1 Hz tones looked for back in the 20th Century (see Is Energy a Key to Interstellar Communication?).

When we in future build large power beaming systems we will likely put messages on them. That is, if we’ve addressed the METI issue, meaning that we’ve had enough discussion and agreement by mankind of what we wish to say [6].

References

1. Gregory Benford, James Benford and Dominic Benford, “Searching for Cost Optimized Interstellar Beacons”, Astrobiology, 10, 491-498 (2010).

2. James Benford, Gregory Benford and Dominic Benford “Messaging With Cost Optimized Interstellar Beacons”, Astrobiology, 10, 475-490, (2010).

3. James Benford, “StarshIp Sails Propelled by Cost-Optimized Directed Energy”, JBIS, 66, 85-95, (2013).

4. David Messerschmitt, “Interstellar communication: The case for spread spectrum”, Acta Astronautica, 81, 227-238, (2012).

5. David Messerschmitt, “Design for minimum energy in interstellar communication”, Acta Astronautica, 107, 20-39, (2015).

6. John Billingham and James Benford, “Costs and Difficulties of large-scale METI, and the Need for International Debate on Potential Risks”, JBIS, 67, 17-23, (2014).

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Charter

In Centauri Dreams, Paul Gilster looks at peer-reviewed research on deep space exploration, with an eye toward interstellar possibilities. For many years this site coordinated its efforts with the Tau Zero Foundation. It now serves as an independent forum for deep space news and ideas. In the logo above, the leftmost star is Alpha Centauri, a triple system closer than any other star, and a primary target for early interstellar probes. To its right is Beta Centauri (not a part of the Alpha Centauri system), with Beta, Gamma, Delta and Epsilon Crucis, stars in the Southern Cross, visible at the far right (image courtesy of Marco Lorenzi).

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