Centauri Dreams
Imagining and Planning Interstellar Exploration
Pluto: Surface Features Emerging
New imagery from New Horizons continues to dazzle, with the images below taken by the spacecraft’s Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) instrument from May 29 to June 2. We’re beginning to pick up bright areas mixed with dark terrain in what are clearly the best images ever obtained of the remote world. As before, mission scientists are using deconvolution to sharpen the raw images and are also teasing out further details with contrast adjustments. The processing can produce artifacts so that fine details will have to be checked at closer range.
Image: These images, taken by New Horizons’ Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI), show four different “faces” of Pluto as it rotates about its axis with a period of 6.4 days. All the images have been rotated to align Pluto’s rotational axis with the vertical direction (up-down) on the figure, as depicted schematically in the upper left. From left to right, the images were taken when Pluto’s central longitude was 17, 63, 130, and 243 degrees, respectively. The date of each image, the distance of the New Horizons spacecraft from Pluto, and the number of days until Pluto closest approach are all indicated in the figure. Credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute.
We’re still 39 million kilometers from Pluto but the action is getting very interesting indeed. Here’s New Horizons principal investigator Alan Stern (SwRI, Boulder) on what we see in the new views:
“Even though the latest images were made from more than 30 million miles away, they show an increasingly complex surface with clear evidence of discrete equatorial bright and dark regions—some that may also have variations in brightness. We can also see that every face of Pluto is different and that Pluto’s northern hemisphere displays substantial dark terrains, though both Pluto’s darkest and its brightest known terrain units are just south of, or on, its equator. Why this is so is an emerging puzzle.”
Describing ‘an increasingly complex and nuanced surface,’ Stern points out that by early July we will have spectroscopic data to help work out just what these differences in terrain are. I also want to add that the discussion of New Horizons’ latest imagery on the Unmanned Spaceflight site has been extremely helpful — just drill down to the New Horizons mission. Unmanned Spaceflight has long been a key resource for those tracking missions throughout the system.
Meanwhile, the pace of news is obviously accelerating. NASA is planning weekly updates on the New Horizons mission for June 16, 23 and 30, but when we get into July, things really heat up, with daily updates live on NASA TV starting on July 7 as we move toward final approach.
With excitement building, be aware of ‘The Year of Pluto,’ a new documentary on Pluto and the New Horizons mission that places the spacecraft in context. New Horizons can be said to be closing out our first scouting phase of the classical planets and beginning the exploration of the Kuiper Belt. NASA TV will have ‘The Year of Pluto’ available beginning Friday June 12th on the following schedule (all times EDT): Friday, June 12 @ 1000, 1300, 2000; Saturday, June 13 @ 0600, 1600, 2100; Sunday, June 14 @ 0800, 1300, 2000. Here’s the trailer for a preview.
As we approach July, it’s also heartening to see the rising degree of public interest in New Horizons. I’ve mentioned Pluto Safari, a free app that uses 3D simulations to follow the mission on both iOS and Android devices (available here for iOS and here for Android). Simulation Curriculum, creators of Starry Night, is behind Pluto Safari, and given its interactive mission information, the app is a real bonus for those following the mission as closely as I do.
From the New Horizons team itself comes Pluto Time, an online tool that tells you, once you’ve entered your location, when your site is experiencing about the same degree of illumination as Pluto itself. Walk outside at the designated time and, given variables of weather and terrain, your surroundings will be roughly as bright as Pluto at noon. NASA is encouraging people to take photos during their local Pluto time and share them with social media using the tag #PlutoTime. Pluto Time surprises me a bit in that my next time will be just past 2030, deep into the evening, to be sure, but a good bit brighter than I had imagined Pluto even at noon.
Image: An artist’s impression of Pluto’s surface. The Sun appears about 1,000 times fainter than it does on Earth. The moon Charon looms large in the sky. Image Credit: NASA / Southwest Research Institute / Alex Parker.
Ceres Up Close (and a Bit of Bradbury)
I know I’m going to remember the summer of 2015 for a long time. The confluence of deep space missions has brought new images every week, including the latest view of Ceres and its enigmatic bright spots, which appears below. I’m already bracing myself for that Voyager-like sense of deflation once New Horizons gets past Pluto/Charon and the long-anticipated targets dwindle. Pluto has a special place for some of us because we grew up with it being considered the ninth planet. Dwarf planet or not, it’s the final act of a classic Solar System tour.
Not that we won’t be returning to many of these places, but the timing is uncertain and once Juno finishes its work at Jupiter, we’ll have no missions on their way to the outer planets. That makes this summer both energizing and a bit poignant, but let’s enjoy it while we can. This view of Ceres, taken on June 6, really is spectacular. We’re seeing the dwarf planet from 4400 kilometers as Dawn flies its second mapping orbit. The resolution is 410 meters per pixel.
It’s the bright spots that continue to seize the imagination, as Chris Russell (UCLA), principal investigator for the Dawn mission, notes:
“The bright spots in this configuration make Ceres unique from anything we’ve seen before in the solar system. The science team is working to understand their source. Reflection from ice is the leading candidate in my mind, but the team continues to consider alternate possibilities, such as salt. With closer views from the new orbit and multiple view angles, we soon will be better able to determine the nature of this enigmatic phenomenon.”
The crater enclosing the brightest of the spots is about 90 kilometers across, and so far we have no clear explanation for where they appear or why they are as bright as they are. Like Vesta, Ceres reveals abundant cratering, but as this JPL news release makes clear, the latter shows a good deal more activity on the surface in the form of landslides and other flows. April’s color map, discussed at the 2015 General Assembly of the European Geosciences Union in Vienna, shows differences in color and terrain suggesting that Ceres was once an active body.
Image: This map-projected view of Ceres was created from images taken by NASA’s Dawn spacecraft during its initial approach to the dwarf planet, prior to being captured into orbit in March 2015. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPS/DLR/IDA.
The plan is for Dawn to continue in its 4400-kilometer orbit until June 28 before moving to 1450 kilometers, an altitude it will descend to in early August. The views, in other words, should continue to improve. Are we looking at an object that will one day become important to a system-wide infrastructure? John S. Lewis has suggested that Ceres could be a primary base for transport and operations in the asteroid belt, as well as a valuable stepping stone for the exploration of objects still further out, such as the icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn.
Working with Ken Roy and David Fields, Robert Kennedy has examined Ceres as a ‘shell world,’ one that could be ultimately transformed by being enclosed in a spherical shell of matter that could house an atmosphere and ecosystem. We’ve bandied the idea around extensively in the comments here ever since it was presented at the 2011 Tennessee Valley Interstellar Workshop session in Oak Ridge (see Terraforming: Enter the ‘Shell World’). The problems are formidable, but the authors note in a JBIS paper that a terraformed Ceres that is half ocean yields enough dry land to approximate the area of Indonesia, on a world with a gravity well only 1.5 percent that of Earth. Think of it as an enclosed micro-gravity tropic zone.
All of which, combined with this summer of deep space achievement, brings Ray Bradbury’s short story ‘Rocket Summer’ irresistibly to mind:
Rocket summer. People leaned from their dripping porches and watched the reddening sky.
The rocket lay on the launching field, blowing out pink clouds of fire and oven heat. The rocket stood in the cold winter morning, making summer with every breath of its mighty exhausts. The rocket made climates, and summer lay for a brief moment upon the land…
Such distant futures are fascinating in their own right and I applaud their exploration, but right now we’re in the midst of first-wave exploration by machine, and it’s clear that Ceres has many secrets yet to divulge, including the question of whether or not it has an internal ocean. Much rides on the outcome, but Ceres as refueling stop for Brian McConnell and Alex Tolley’s ‘spacecoach’ is an attractive proposition as we develop human missions to the outer planets.
The paper on terraforming Ceres is Roy, Kennedy and Fields, “Shell Worlds: An Approach to Terraforming Moons, Small Planets and Plutoids,” JBIS Vol. 62 (2009), pp. 32-38. John Lewis’ new book is Asteroid Mining 101: Wealth for the New Space Economy (WaveCloud Corporation, 2014).
Volcanism and Astrobiology
A question in a grad school astrobiology seminar at the University of Washington prompted Amit Misra to go to work on plate tectonics. The movement of huge blocks of a planetary surface is beneficial to life because it prompts recycling, as materials move back and forth between the inside of the planet and the atmosphere. We’ve learned a lot about plate tectonics on Earth, but the seminar question stuck with Misra. How could we detect plate tectonics on an exoplanet?
The result is a paper in press at Astriobiology. Misra and colleagues make the case that transient sulfate aerosols produced by volcanic outgassing could provide just the signature scientists need. Explosive volcanic events produced by subduction at the edges of tectonic plates inject such aerosols directly into the atmosphere, where they can persist over periods of months to years. The paper argues that future instruments like the James Webb Space Telescope or the European Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT) will be able to detect eruptions via the atmospheric spectra of planets in transit across their star.
“I came up with the idea of looking at explosive volcanic eruptions as a proxy, or stand-in, for plate tectonics,” says Misra. “I had done some work modeling aerosols produced by volcanic eruptions for other projects, so I started looking into how we might detect an eruption and what it would tell us.”
Image: Explosive volcanic activity on the edge of tectonic plates leaves a detectable signature in the atmosphere, one that may prove useful for characterizing conditions on an exoplanet. Credit: Kevin West/Liaison/Getty Images.
Geological activity is thought to be favorable for the emergence of life on planets in the habitable zone. Volcanic and hydrothermal activity during the Hadean and early Archaean eras, from the time of Earth’s formation to about 2.5 billion years ago, produced the energy necessary for early life and fostered the creation of organic carbon molecules. As for life’s survival, geological activity helps to stabilize long-term climates through the carbonate-silicate cycle, which continues to regulate the concentration of CO2 in Earth’s atmosphere.
So if we can detect explosive volcanism that is produced by tectonic action, we have another way to evaluate the potential habitability of terrestrial-class exoplanets. It’s true that we can also imagine habitats such as subsurface oceans on icy moons that persist without geological activity, but I think Misra has it right when he and his team note that for now, astrobiology focuses on biospheres at the largest scale, affecting the surface and atmosphere. These, after all, will be the first we will have the ability to detect and characterize.
From the paper:
The most readily detectable exoplanet biospheres will be large-biomass, high metabolism surface biospheres that persist for geologically significant timescales. This is because small biospheres or biospheres not in contact with the atmosphere will have minimal influence on atmospheric composition, and because short-lived biospheres are unlikely to temporally overlap with our observations… {W]e argue geological activity is necessary for the genesis and maintenance of these detectable biospheres. We propose that transient sulfate aerosols could be a spectral signature for volcanic activity and that the detection of transient sulfate aerosols would help inform habitability evaluations.
The researchers used transit transmission spectra with Earth as a model to test the detectability of transient sulfate aerosols in the stratosphere, with Earth-like assumptions for radius, mass and atmospheric composition. The models included Earth analogs around a Sun-like star as well as an M5 dwarf, in both cases assuming planets in the habitable zone. Aerosol data from Earth-observing satellites was used with different assumptions on cloud cover and altitudes.
The result: Evidence of volcanism is detectable using transit transmission spectra for planets within about 10 parsecs of the Sun. The trick will be to rule out false positives that could be the result of dust storms or impacts. And while transient sulfate aerosols are injected by explosive volcanism on Earth, occurring largely at converging plate boundaries, the paper notes the need for caution: “…even a tentative claim of plate tectonics would require a detection of transient sulfate aerosols coupled with other system/planetary observations and modeling.”
Detecting both transient aerosols and atmospheric oxygen together would be an even more interesting biosignature than a detection of oxygen by itself. The paper adds:
In the absence of surface fluxes of reduced gases, oxygen can potentially build up in an atmosphere even without the presence of life, making O2 alone an ambiguous biosignature. However the detection of volcanism would strongly suggest a source of oxygen-consuming reduced gases and would thus strengthen the case for biogenic oxygen.
The paper is Misra et al., “Transient Sulfate Aerosols as a Signature of Exoplanet Volcanism,”
in press at Astrobiology (preprint). A University of Washington news release is available.
Sail in View
The main post for today will be online around 1230 EDT (1630 UTC), but first I have to publish this image from LightSail, along with Jason Davis’ description. Nice work!
“The Planetary Society’s LightSail test mission successfully completed its primary objective of deploying a solar sail in low-Earth orbit, mission managers said today [June 9]. During a ground station pass over Cal Poly San Luis Obispo that began at 1:26 p.m. EDT (17:26 UTC), the final pieces of an image showcasing LightSail’s deployed solar sails were received on Earth. The image confirms the sails have unfurled, which was the final milestone of a shakedown mission designed to pave the way for a full-fledged solar sail flight in 2016.”
A second image may include a view of the Earth, according to Davis. What may happen next is a further tensioning, or ‘walking out,’ of the sail booms, which should further flatten the sail. Davis notes, too, that the ‘fish-eye’ lens of the camera produces a bit of distortion in the image.
Addendum: Bill Nye’s statement on LightSail’s success.
“I’m very proud to say that our LightSail test mission was a success. We saw again that space is hard. It’s a test flight, and sure enough our little spacecraft tested us. I’ve got to congratulate our remarkable team. They solved some unexpected big problems up there with nothing but short radio signals sent from down here. This LightSail test taught us a lot, just as we hoped it would, and so we’re ready to do some real solar sailing with LightSail’s 2016 mission. Let me finish by reminding everyone that this mission and next year’s flight are funded entirely by our supporters and especially our members— people of Earth, who want to participate in space exploration. We’re changing the way humankind explores space. Today is a big day for The Society and for space explorers everywhere.”
Mission Updates Far and Near
The Planetary Society’s Emily Lakdawalla tells us (via Twitter) that she has a history with jigsaw puzzles, one that finally paid off in the image below. You’re looking at her work on a partially de-scrambled image from LightSail, fragmentary because the entire image was not downloaded during a Cal Poly (San Luis Obispo) overflight on the afternoon of the 8th. The complete image should be downloaded later today, and perhaps shown at an upcoming press conference with LightSail engineering team leaders scheduled for Wednesday June 10 at 1730 UTC (1330 EDT).
At any rate, LightSail’s deployed sails are in view. Bill Nye, CEO of The Planetary Society, was on National Public Radio yesterday (audio here) in a brief spot in which he described the unfurling of the solar sail as a ‘sail Mary pass,’ a longshot required by circumstance as the spacecraft continued to tumble. If the phrase ‘sail Mary pass’ is inscrutable to you, you may not be familiar with American football, where ‘hail Mary pass’ has become a routine way of describing desperate plays made under pressure (this exhausts my knowledge of football — I know only baseball — and I will send you to the Wikipedia for details). At any rate, sail deployment was the purpose of this first LightSail mission, and sail deployment we had [although I’m now hearing we have only ‘partial’ deployment – stay tuned].
Ceres in Motion
Meanwhile, spectacular views from ongoing space missions continue to flow in. The next few weeks in particular are going to be rich in imagery as New Horizons closes on Pluto/Charon and Dawn continues its work at Ceres. The latest video animation from Ceres is something to enjoy more than once with a cup of coffee. If this doesn’t start your day right, what will?
Eighty images were combined to create the video, with the vertical dimension exaggerated by a factor of two. The views are from Dawn’s first mapping orbit at 13,600 kilometers and include later navigation images from 5100 kilometers, providing a detailed view of the terrain. I’m using the copy of the JPL video that io9 kindly posted to YouTube.
Dawn’s second mapping orbit began on June 3, with the rest of the month slated for observations about 4400 kilometers above the surface. Of the video, Dawn team member Ralf Jaumann (DLR, Berlin) says: “We used a three-dimensional terrain model that we had produced based on the images acquired so far. They will become increasingly detailed as the mission progresses — with each additional orbit bringing us closer to the surface.”
A Restive Comet
The Ma’at region at comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko’s ‘head’ clearly stays active even after it falls into shadow, as we can see from the latest imagery from the Rosetta spacecraft. Here we’re looking at jets of dust escaping into space, the result, researchers believe, of the increased heating of the comet as it moves closer to the Sun. Perihelion is coming up in mid-August, and this image was taken with a scant 270 million kilometers separating Sun and comet. “Only recently have we begun to observe dust jets persisting even after sunset”, says OSIRIS principal investigator Holger Sierks (Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research).
Image: This image of Rosetta’s comet taken on 25 April, 2015 from a distance of approximately 93 kilometers shows clearly distinguishable jets of dust after nightfall. Credit: ESA/Rosetta/MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/SSO/INTA/UPM/DASP/IDA.
OSIRIS scientist Xian Shi (MPS) adds that although the dusty cometary surface cools rapidly after sunset, deeper layers of the comet — evidently containing frozen gases — retain their heat, a phenomenon that has also been observed on comet 81P/Wild 2 and Deep Impact comet 9P/Tempel 1. We’ll learn a good deal more about how comets awaken as Rosetta follows 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko into the summer in the long fall toward perihelion.
LightSail Deployment Apparently Successful
After a nerve-wracking week in which contact was repeatedly lost and then regained, The Planetary Society’s LightSail has successfully charged its batteries and deployed its solar sail. Deployment began at 1947 UTC (1547 EDT) June 7, just off the coast of Baja California, with telemetry showing climbing motor counts and power levels consistent with ground testing. In a late afternoon update, Jason Davis also noted that the spacecraft’s cameras were on (see Deployment! LightSail Boom Motor Whirrs to Life).
If you’re following this mission closely, you’ll want to know about Ted Molczan’s page LightSail-A: Estimated Post-Sail Deployment Orbital Elements, with early predictions on
orbital decay with the sails extended. Bonnie Link (hflink.com) produced a map showing Monday’s LightSail passes over North America that you can see below. Here the white boxes are UTC times. The green arcs are sunlit, the blue in shadow and thus not visible.
Further confirmation of sail deployment came in a tweet from Davis noting that early post-deployment telemetry showed the spacecraft’s tumble rate had slowed dramatically. So a tiny spacecraft the size of a shoebox paid for by private donors has apparently managed to achieve its primary goal despite early questions about the effectiveness of its solar arrays and battery and a series of communications breakdowns caused by software issues. We’ll learn more later today, with the first team teleconference scheduled for 1330 UTC.
Images of full sail deployment should become available at some point today and I’ll update this post then. LightSail is likely to remain in space no more than about three days, given the drag it’s already experiencing. Remember that this was expected, as the first LightSail mission wasn’t designed as a test of true solar sailing, but rather a way to shake out deployment issues (and plenty of them, obviously, turned up, especially with regard to attitude control).
Cees Bassa reported the first visual observations from Dwingeloo (NOTE: In The Netherlands, not Australia, as I previously wrote) post-deployment, noting the increase in the rate of orbital decay:
LightSail [40661/15025L] was with the video camera! At about 15 deg elevation it first was invisible, but then gave a long flare up to about 4th or 5th magnitude. It was running about 10s early on the last JSpOC elset, suggesting the sail has deployed, increasing the drag significantly. Congratulations to the Planetary Society!
A subsequent observation (via Ron Dantowitz, Clay Center Observatory) was of about 4th magnitude and stable in brightness. As Ted Molczan points out, you can go to the Heavens Above page, enter your location, and view a chart of visible passes of LightSail. Or check the LightSail viewing tips Jason Davis gives in the article referenced above. Flyovers around dawn and dusk are the best time to see a spacecraft still illuminated by sunlight.
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