A Dyson Sphere makes an extraordinary setting for science fiction. In fact, my first knowledge of the concept came from reading Larry Niven's 1970 novel Ringworld, a book that left such an impression that I still recall reading half of it at a sitting in the drafty little parlor of a house I was renting in Grinnell, Iowa. Ringworld had just come out as a Ballantine paperback with the lovely cover you see below. I was hooked after about three pages and read deep into a night filled with wind and snow. It could be argued, of course, that a ring made out of planetary material, a habitat so vast that it completely encircles its star, is actually one of the smaller Dyson concepts. It was in 1960 that Freeman Dyson suggested how a civilization advanced to the point of such astro-engineering might use everything it found in its solar system to create a cloud of objects, a swarm that would make the most efficient use of its primary's light. And as you keep adding objects, you point to the...

Now here's a comprehensive task for you. Take about a dozen primordial minerals found in interstellar dust grains and figure out what processes -- physical, chemical, biological -- led to the appearance of the thousands of minerals we find on our planet today. The job was undertaken by Robert Hazen and Dominic Papineau (Carnegie Institution Geophysical Laboratory) and colleagues, and it produced startling results: Of the roughly 4300 known types of minerals on Earth (fifty new types identified each year), up to two-thirds can be linked to biological activity. Mineral evolution? In a sense, although Hazen is quick to qualify the statement: "It's a different way of looking at minerals from more traditional approaches. Mineral evolution is obviously different from Darwinian evolution — minerals don't mutate, reproduce or compete like living organisms. But we found both the variety and relative abundances of minerals have changed dramatically over more than 4.5 billion years of...

Using eleven of the Allen Telescope Array's 6.1-meter dishes, the SETI Institute and the Radio Astronomy Laboratory at the University of California (Berkeley) have detected the New Horizons spacecraft on its way to Pluto/Charon. New Horizons transmits an 8.4 GHz carrier signal that showed up readily on the SETI Prelude detection system. What I hadn't realized was that snagging distant spacecraft transmitters is a standard part of SETI operations, as Jill Tarter notes in this brief article on the event posted at the New Horizons site: "We look forward to checking in with New Horizons as a routine, end-to-end test of our system health. As this spacecraft travels farther, and its signals grow weaker, we will be building out the Allen Telescope Array from 42 to 350 antennas, and thus can look forward to a long-term relationship." Image: New Horizons as tracked by the Allen Telescope Array. This plot shows 678 hertz (Hz) of spectrum collected over 98 seconds. The New Horizons signal can...

The Moon is, for obvious reasons, rarely considered an interesting venue for astrobiology. But I've been looking through Joop Houtkooper's presentation at the European Planetary Science Congress, noting his contention that some lunar craters might hold samples of life from the early Earth, and perhaps even from Mars. If the name Houtkooper rings a bell, it may stem from the splash he made last year by suggesting that the Viking probes to Mars may have discovered Martian microbes consisting of fifty percent water and fifty percent hydrogen peroxide. Although some extremophiles here on Earth put hydrogen peroxide to use, the theory is quite a long shot. But then, Houtkooper (University of Giessen, Germany) seems to thrive on remote possibilities. His lunar theory works like this: Certain craters on the Moon are effectively shielded from sunlight, at least deep within their recesses. Shackleton crater at the south pole is a case in point, a place that may contain sub-craters free of...

I've spent so much recent time on two SETI/METI papers by James, Gregory and Dominic Benford because they contain powerful arguments for re-thinking our current SETI strategy. By analyzing how we might construct cost-optimized interstellar beacons, the authors ask what those beacons might look like if other civilizations were turning them toward us. The results are striking: A distant beacon operating for maximum effect consistent with rational expense would offer up a pulsed signal that will be short and intermittent, recurring over periods of a month or year. It will, in other words, be unlike the kind of persistent signal that conventional SETI is optimized to search for. Searches designed to sweep past stars quickly, hoping to find long-lasting beacons whose signature would be apparent, would rarely notice oddball signals that seem to come out of nowhere and then vanish. Tracking such signals, looking for signs of regularity and repetition, calls for a different strategy. Image:...

If we want to consider how to pick up transmissions from a distant civilization, it pays to consider the most effective strategies for building interstellar beacons here on Earth. This is the method James, Gregory and Dominic Benford have used in twin papers on SETI/METI issues, papers that should be read in conjunction since the METI questions play directly into our SETI reception strategies. It pays to have a microwave specialist like James Benford on the case. Our METI transmissions to date have used radio telescopes and microwaves to send messages to nearby stars. Longer distances will cost more and take much more power. How much would a true interstellar beacon cost, one not limited to the relatively short ranges of recent METI transmissions? Count on something on the order of $10 billion. As to power, Jim is able to quantify the amount. To reach beyond roughly a thousand light years with a microwave beacon, an Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) greater than 1017 W must...

Several interesting papers on SETI have appeared in recent days, among them Gregory, James and Dominic Benford's attempt to place SETI in the context of economics. Equally useful is Duncan Forgan's new look at the Drake Equation, presenting a way to estimate the distribution of the crucial parameters. I'll bypass the Forgan paper temporarily because I've asked Marc Millis to tackle it as soon as he gets back from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, where he's gone to attend a workshop. Forgan's study has direct bearing on a Tau Zero initiative we hope to have in place by the end of the year and thus is a natural for Marc to write up. But back to the Benfords, who have offered up twin papers (as seems reasonable for the brothers), one on SETI (with Gregory as principal author) and the other on its METI offshoot (transmitting messages rather than listening for them). James Benford is lead author on the latter. This work is so rich that I won't try to encapsulate it in a single post, but...

A new look at Stanley Miller's experiments at the University of Chicago in the early 1950s offers up an intriguing speculation: Volcanic eruptions on the early Earth may have been crucial for the development of life. Miller used hydrogen, methane and ammonia to re-create what was then believed to be the the primordial atmosphere on our planet, operating with closed flasks containing water in addition to the gases. An electric spark was then used to simulate lightning, and as anyone who has ever cracked a textbook knows, the water became laden with amino acids after a few weeks. Image A: The apparatus used for Miller's original experiment. Boiled water (1) creates airflow, driving steam and gases through a spark (2). A cooling condenser (3) turns some steam back into liquid water, which drips down into the trap (4), where chemical products also settle. Credit: Ned Shaw, Indiana University. It never occurred to me that samples from the original experiments might have survived after all...

Why would you want to take pictures of Earth from a spacecraft in orbit around Venus? Aside from the wish to see a familiar place from a distant location, our planet can also become an interesting testbed for exoplanetary studies. We've run into this idea before in the EPOXI mission, which is the combined extended mission of the Deep Impact spacecraft. Here the cometary component of Deep Impact was recently augmented with observations of Earth that can suggest how to study the glint of light off distant oceans, or the signature of land masses. The extrasolar component of EPOXI is called EPOCh, for Extrasolar Planet Observation and Characterization, and it primarily involves an examination of stars with known transiting planets, looking for other planets in the system (EPOXI can detect transits of objects down to about half the diameter of the Earth) or possibly moons around the known ones. Meanwhile, the spacecraft continues its journey to comet Hartley 2 for observations there, its...

The idea of a galactic habitable zone (GHZ) has a certain inevitability. After all, we talk about habitable zones around stars, so why not galaxies? A stellar habitable zone is usually considered to refer to those areas around the star where liquid water can exist on a planetary surface. Those who believe that confining habitable zones to regions like these carries an implicit bias -- limiting them to life much like our own -- miss the point. The habitable zone concept simply tells us where it makes the most sense to search for the kind of life we can most readily recognize, and as such, it hardly rules out other, more exotic forms of life. But while liquid water takes precedence in a stellar habitable zone, a galactic HZ is still being defined. Charles Lineweaver and team have examined it, among other things, in terms of stellar metallicity (the elements heavier than hydrogen and helium found in the body of a star), concluding that there is a ring several kiloparsecs wide...

The idea that life on Earth might have originated elsewhere, on Mars, for example, has gained currency in recent times as we've learned more about the transfer of materials between planets. Mars cooled before the Earth and may well have become habitable at a time when our planet was not. There seems nothing particularly outrageous in the idea that dormant bacteria inside chunks of the Martian surface, blasted into space by comet or asteroid impacts, might have crossed the interplanetary gulf and given rise to life here. But what of an interstellar origin for life on Earth? The odds on meteoroids from a system around the average galactic field star not only striking the early Earth but delivering viable microbes are long indeed. But if we consider the Sun's probable origin in a cluster of young stars, all emerging from the same collapsing cloud, the picture changes significantly. Now we're dealing with much smaller distances between stars and slow relative motion as well, conditions...

Making contact with an extraterrestrial civilization, whether by microwave, laser or neutrino, highlights the problem of time. Suppose you are looking for a newly emerging technological culture around another star. When do you transmit? After all, even the most powerful signal sent to Earth a million years ago would have no listeners, which is why some have suggested putting actual artifacts in promising solar systems. Rather than transmitting over time-scales measured in eons, you leave an object that can be decoded and activated for communications. All kinds of interesting science and science fictional scenarios flow from that idea. But what if you want to contact not just a few highly targeted systems, but instead send a signal intended for everyone in the galaxy with the means to receive it? As John Learned (University of Hawaii) and team speculate in a new paper, one way to do that would be to select highly visible and important stars to carry your message. Cepheid variables are...

'Hanny's Voorwerp' may soon enter the astronomical lexicon as a reference to anomalous objects in deep space. 'Hanny' is Hanny van Arkel, a 25-year old Dutch school teacher and participant in the Galaxy Zoo project, where she and 150,000 other volunteers worldwide help to scan galaxy images online. 'Voorwerp' is the Dutch word for 'object,' in this case a conglomeration of gas heated to about 10,000 degrees Celsius and marked by a hole in its center. The suspicion grows that van Arkel has stumbled upon an entirely new class of astronomical object. Out of such finds does the work of a computer-armed volunteer become fodder for the Hubble Space Telescope, which will soon have 'Hanny's Voorwerp' under observation. The object is apparently being illuminated by a source we cannot see, leading the Galaxy Zoo team to look at the nearby galaxy IC 2497. The quasar at the heart of this galaxy seems to have shut down some time in the past 100,000 years -- at least, that's the theory -- while...

Imagine a form of life so unusual that we cannot figure out how it dies. That's exactly what researchers are finding beneath the floor of the sea off Peru. The microbes being studied there -- single-celled organisms called Archaea -- live in time frames that can perhaps best be described as geological. Consider: A bacterium like Escherichia Coli divides and reproduces every twenty minutes or so. But the microbes in the so-called Peruvian Margin take hundreds or thousands of years to divide. "In essence, these microbes are almost, practically dead by our normal standards," says Christopher H. House (Penn State). "They metabolize a little, but not much." House goes on to discuss what a slow metabolism may imply about environments outside our own planet. Imagine hydrothermal vents on Europa, where the energy ration may be slim. For that matter, with Phoenix still working its magic at the Martian pole, imagine subsurface aquifers on that planet whose energy resources may be just enough...

Without the explosions of supernovae, the heavy elements so essential to life itself would be unavailable, and stars would lack the raw materials to form planets. Thus Carl Sagan's famous "We are star-stuff" quotation, an idea validated by our extrasolar studies, which allow us to correlate the presence of planets with the existence of heavy elements in their stars. Much remains to be done here, but stars with higher metallicity and more heavy elements do appear more likely to have planets. Volker Bromm (now at the University of Texas) puts it this way: "We're now just beginning to investigate the metallicity threshold for planet formation, so it's hard to say when exactly the window for life opened. But clearly, we're fortunate that the metallicity of the matter that birthed our solar system was high enough for the Earth to form. We owe our existence in a very direct way to all the stars whose life and death preceded the formation of our Sun. And this process began right after the...

We know that organic compounds have been found in meteorite fragments. But are they truly extraterrestrial, or the result of contamination here on Earth? The subject, always controversial, has been given new impetus by a paper that points to the former, with interesting ramifications. Did life begin on Earth or was the Earth seeded by life from the cosmos? Or perhaps a third alternative exists, with pre-existing life influenced by infall from outer space. If we can build a viable case for the latter two possibilities, we can build one just as viable for planets around a wide variety of stars, giving the idea that granted enough time, life of some kind may become ubiquitous a most interesting boost. The scientists involved have been working with fragments of the Murchison meteorite, which fell in 1969 about 100 km north of Melbourne, Australia. Quite a bit of material -- over 100 kg -- could be recovered, enough for batteries of subsequent tests and the discovery of various amino...

When it comes to SETI investigations, the Low Frequency Array (LOFAR) being built in Europe offers intriguing possibilities. With a plan to encompass roughly 25,000 small antennae, arranged in clusters spread out over an area 350 kilometers in diameter, LOFAR may prove sensitive enough to detect the radiation leakage of transmitters in the radio and television bands from extraterrestrial civilizations. The array will operate between 10 and 240 MHz. When completed, it will offer not only myriad astronomical possibilities but SETI opportunities with a difference. Michael Garrett (Leiden University) is general director of ASTRON, the Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, now involved in building the new array. Garrett makes note of what's possible if LOFAR's formidable resources are turned to SETI: "LOFAR can extend the search for extra-terrestrial intelligence to an entirely unexplored part of the low-frequency radio spectrum, an area that is heavily used for civil and military...

Imagine a team of astronomers from a distant extraterrestrial civilization. Anxious to find blue and green living planets like their own, they study various methods of planetary detection and put them to work on small, relatively nearby stars. Detecting planetary transits, they refine their techniques until they trace the signature of a planet much like home. Now assume that, despite the presence of their own version of skeptics like myself (some of us think that sending deliberate signals to the stars is premature without further, wider discussion), they decide to encode information about themselves into a message to be sent by a repeating beacon. Naturally, they turn to those stars around which they've found planets that look to be not only the right size, but in the right position, within the habitable zone where water could exist on the surface. Fanciful? You bet, especially in the idea that a nearby extraterrestrial civilization would be more or less at the same state of...

It's not my usual practice to begin a post with a quotation, but Lee Billings, writing in a recent essay for SEED Magazine, so precisely captures an essential truth about our future in space that I want to give it pride of place. Looking at the ways we search for life on planets around other stars, Billings says this: Throughout history, our knowledge has grown through human ambition and curiosity, only to regress beneath human apathy and caprice. The greatest obstacle to efforts to find another Earth, to discover life elsewhere in the universe, isn't some flaw in our methodology or our technology, but in our will. Most of us alive today are unlikely to see these efforts bear their fullest fruit. Even optimistic young astronomers are uncertain that they will see the light from other living worlds in their careers, or even their lifetimes. But they work as though they will. Whether they see it personally doesn't matter; what matters is that these other planets be seen someday. In...

SETI quite naturally started with the assumption that we should look in the realm of photons for signals from other stars. After all, radio or optical wavelengths were things we understood, and the interest in radio and attendant theorizing about 'waterhole' frequencies and interstellar beacons continues to be worth examining. But a truly advanced civilization might be using methods we haven't yet managed to exploit. Of these, a singularly interesting choice is communication by neutrino. John Learned (University of Hawaii) and colleagues take on this issue in a new paper just posted to the arXiv site, looking at the advantages of the notoriously elusive neutrino. A major plus is that the signal to noise problem is tricky for radio and optical methods, especially in the galactic plane, whereas neutrinos, depending on their energy levels, can offer an essentially noise-free band. We also run into severe problems with photons as we look at line of sight communications anywhere near the...